Sistem Informasi Geografi (GIS): Pengenalan kepada perspektif komputer

Abstrak

Sistem Informasi Geografi (atau dalam bahasa Inggeris, GIS) boleh ditakrifkan sebagai satu sistem untuk menangkap, menyimpan, memeriksa, mengintegrasikan, memanipulasi, menganalisis dan memaparkan data yang berkaitan dengan reruang yang berpandukan kepada bumi. Walau bagaimanapun, beberapa pakar terus mengkritik definisi dengan mencadangkan pandangan mereka tentang GIS. Menurut sejarah, GIS bermula pada tahun 1989 dalam perspektif peta, dan perkembangan tersebut berterusan sehingga hari ini dalam perspektif komputer. Terdapat beberapa komponen yang terlibat untuk mengendalikan sistem GIS komputer, seperti perkakasan, perisian, data, kaedah dan pengguna. Perisian dan perkakasan adalah pautan bersama-sama untuk membentuk komponen yang lengkap, sementara orang yang mengguna pula akan bertindak balas sebagai pengguna untuk mengumpulkan data dari permukaan bumi dan memindahkannya ke dalam bentuk digital sebelum analisis dijalankan untuk menghasilkan sebarang informasi. Kaedah GIS boleh dibahagikan kepada input data reruang, atribut pengurusan data, penerokaan data, analisis data, serta paparan data dan output data. Dengan kata lain, data spatial dari permukaan bumi akan dimasukkan ke komputer sebagai ‘softcopy’ atau data digital dan apabila ada perubahan, misalnya penggunaan tanah, di kawasan tertentu GIS mampu untuk meneroka dan mengelola data sehingga ia dikemaskini. Kemudian, data tersebut boleh digunakan untuk menganalisis dan menghasilkan maklumat baru. Bahkan GIS dapat memberi manfaat kepada masyarakat (misalnya perancangan bandar dan kartografi, perspektif perniagaan, penilaian kesan alam sekitar, pengurusan sumber asli, dan lain-lain). Bagaimanapun, alat ini juga mempunyai kelemahan dan kekurangan (contohnya kos yang agak mahal, memerlukan jumlah data yang besar dan lain-lain), di mana ia tidak dapat dielakkan untuk berlaku dalam kehidupan kita seharian.

Kata Kunci: aplikasi GIS, GIS, evolusi GIS, kelebihan GIS, kelemahan GIS, komponen GIS

Abstract
Despite continuing debate, Geographic Information System (GIS) can be defined as a system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing and displaying Earth- based spatial data. GIS began in 1989 in map perspectives and has sinced evolved into computer-based systems that it is known today. There are several components in the handling of GIS systems including hardware, software, data, methods, and users. Software and hardware are linked together to form a complete component; those who use them will in turn be collectors of Earth- based data transferring them into digital forms before carrying out any information- yeilding analysis. The GIS methods can be divided into spatial data inputing, attribute data management, data exploration, data analysis, and data displaying and outputing. In other words, Earth- based spatial data will be keyed into the computer as soft or digital data and when there are changes, such as in land use in a specific area, the GIS is able to explore and manage the new information. The GIS can even provide benefits to society such as in urban planning and cartography, business, environmental impact assessment, and natural resources management. However, there are weaknesses and disadvantages with the system such as its costliness and requiring large amounts of data in order to be doable.

Keywords: GIS, GIS advantages, GIS applications, GIS components, GIS evolution, GIS weaknesses


Citation of Article:
Hua, A.K. (2015). Sistem Informasi Geografi (GIS): Pengenalan kepada perspektif komputer. Geografia Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 11(1), 24-31.

Pengenalan

Sistem Informasi Geografi, atau dikenali sebagai GIS dalam bahasa Inggeris, boleh rujuk sebagai 'sistem untuk menangkap, menyimpan, memeriksa, mengintegrasikan, memanipulasi, menganalisis dan memaparkan data yang berkait dengan spatial yang merujuk kepada bumi (Jabatan Alam Sekitar, 1987), atau ‘sistem maklumat yang berkaitan dengan data geografi yang boleh dirujuk, di mana GIS adalah satu sistem maklumat berasaskan komputer yang membolehkan penangkapan, pemodelan, penyimpanan, pencarian, perkongsian, manipulasi, analisis, dan penyajian data geografi’ (Worboy & Duckham, 2003). Walau bagaimanapun, sesetengah pakar dalam GIS terus membahaskan definisi GIS, sebagai contohnya GIS adalah 'satu set alat untuk mengumpul, menyimpan, mendapatkan semula, mengubah, dan memaparkan data ruang dari dunia sebenar untuk satu keperluan yang tertentu (Burrough, 1986), ‘sistem komputer yang boleh menyimpan dan menggunakan data yang menerangkan tempat-tempat di permukaan bumi’ (Rhind, 1989), dan ‘setiap set manual atau prosedur komputer yang digunakan untuk menyimpan dan memanipulasi data geografi yang dirujuk’ (Aronoff, 1989), ‘penggunaan secara am bagi apa-apa keupayaan berasaskan komputer untuk manipulasi data geografi, di mana GIS merangkumi perkakasan dan perisian dengan peranti khusus digunakan untuk peta input dan mewujudkan peta produk, bersama-sama dengan sistem komunikasi yang diperlukan untuk menghubungkan pelbagai unsur-unsur’ (Star & Estes, 1990) dan ‘satu sistem untuk membantu dalam membangunkan model di mana ia akan menjadi mustahil untuk sintesis data yang banyak dengan menggunakan cara lain’ (Martin, 1996). Jadi, evolusi dan perkembangan yang pesat dalam GIS menjadi lebih popular dan menarik terutama dalam melibatkan perisian maklumat geografi menjadi suatu keperluan yang mendadak untuk pengguna seperti organisasi awam dan swasta, ahli politik, pengajar dan pelajar, dan lain-lain.

Menurut sejarah dalam pembangunan peta, secara umumnya peta telah digunakan untuk mewakili permukaan bumi pada zaman terdahuku atau dalam tamadun yang terawal (Aronoff, 1989). Merujuk kepada buku yang bertajuk "Sistem Informasi Geografi: Perspektif Pengurusan", yang ditulis oleh Stan Aronoff pada tahun 1989, peta digunakan untuk menunjukkan taburan ruang ciri-ciri geografi oleh ahli pelayaran, juru ukur tanah, dan tentera, yang dikuasai oleh kerajaan Rom. Walau bagaimanapun, pengukuran dan pembuatan peta mengalami penurunan akibat kejatuhan Empayar Rom. Peta diberi perhatian sekali lagi oleh Eropah kerana pihak kerajaan menyedari bahawa nilai peta dapat digunakan dalam merakam dan merancang dalam penggunaan tanah mereka pada abad kelapan belas. Pada masa ini, peta yang dikeluarkan hanyalah menunjukkan topografi tanah dan sesebuah sempadan unit pentadbiran. Kajian terhadap sumber asli terus berkembang, menyebabkan peta tematik didorong untuk digunakan dalam mewakili taburan ruang ciri seperti geologi, geomorfologi, tanah, dan tumbuh-tumbuhan. Ilmu dan teknologi yang berkembang pada abad kedua puluh, dan permintaan terhadap data geografi yang dihasilkan dalam bentuk peta meningkat. Perkembangan teknologi seperti foto udara dan penderiaan jauh berasaskan satelit, menjadikan produktiviti data geografi mula meningkat dua kali ganda dengan penggunaan yang lebih luas dan analisis yang lebih canggih. Jadi, data geografi yang terkini dapat dihasilkan dengan lebih cepat, dan menjadi maklumat panduan yang penting bagi pengguna dalam kehidupan seharian, sebagai contoh “Global Positioning System” (GPS).

Perkembangan sejarah GIS dapat digambarkan melalui Coppock dan Rhind pada tahun 1991, dengan judul jurnalnya yang bertajuk "Sejarah GIS". Sejarah GIS secara umum dapat diketengahkan oleh Charles Picquet, seorang ahli geografi Perancis, yang menjadi tunggak utama yang melahirkan GIS, dengan menerapkan analisis spatial ke dalam epidemiologi pada tahun 1832. Bermula dari situlah John Snow yang merupakan pengguna paling awal menggunakan kaedah geografi untuk meramalkan wabak penyakit kolera pada tahun 1854. Pembangunan teknologi GIS adalah setara dengan perkembangan teknologi lain. Selepas itu, kerajaan Kanada mula mengembangkan operasi sebenar GIS, dan ianya dinamakan sebagai Sistem Informasi Geografi Kanada atau CGIS. CGIS yang mula digunakan pada tahun 1960, dengan fungsinya untuk menyimpan, memanipulasi dan mengkaji data yang dikumpulkan untuk kegunaan Tanah Inventori Kanada atau Canada Land Inventory. GIS dikembangkan lagi untuk menjadi lebih maju di mana ia dapat memberikan leupayaan dalam kajian untuk pengimbasan, penindihan dan pengukuran tempat-tempat geografi. Pembangunan GIS masih berterusan pada awal tahun 1980 dengan syarikat yang berlainan berkumpul untuk membuat dan menghasilkan perisian GIS yang lebih maju dan sesuai untuk digunakan oleh semua pengguna. Pada akhir abad kedua puluh, pertumbuhan GIS telah merebakn dan disebarkan dengan cepat ke seluruh dunia dan pengguna yang menggunakannya dapat mengekstrak data GIS melalui komputer atau internet.

Komponen GIS
Seperti yang dibincangkan sebelum ini, GIS dapat dianggap sebagai satu pakej perisian, yang meliputi pelbagai alat komponen yang digunakan untuk memasukkan data, memanipulasi data, menganalisis data, dan menghasilkan data (Heywood et al, 2002). Komponen GIS boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga bahagian utama, iaitu sistem komputer (perkakasan dan sistem operasi); perisian GIS (ArcGIS), yang melibatkan data GIS (data spatial dan pengurusan data) dan kaedah penggunaan (prosedur analisis); dan orang-orang yang menggunakannya (pengguna GIS) (Rajah 1) (Heywood et al., 2002). Setiap komponen adalah penting untuk menjalankan GIS dalam pelbagai bidang. Jika terdapat mana-mana komponen yang tidak mencukupi atau hilang, GIS tidak dapat beroperasi dengan baik. Sebagai contoh, sebelum memasukkan sebarang data yang diambil secara primer atau menjalankan analisis data, adalah wajib untuk mempunyai keperluan asas (iaitu tiga komponen utama) untuk mengendalikan GIS seperti perkakasan, perisian, dan pengguna. Perkakasan disebut sebagai komputer yang terdiri daripada monitor, unit sistem atau CPU, papan kekunci dan tetikus (Heywood et al., 2002). Teknologi komputer harus memiliki kemampuan kuasa yang tinggi untuk menjalankan perisian GIS, memori yang mencukupi untuk menyimpan jumlah data yang besar dan mempunyai kualiti yang baik dengan resolusi tinggi pada skrin grafik warna (di mana ia penting untuk membantu dalam menentukan maklumat yang dihasilkan atau diberikan melalui penggunaan warna yang berbeza).

Selepas perkakasan, perisian pula akan mengambil bahagian sebagai peranan kedua penting yang melibatkan dengan proses input, proses menyimpan, proses mengurus, proses menukar, proses menganalisis, dan proses output yang wajib hanya melibatkan perisian GIS untuk mengendalikan sistem dan data-data tersebut (Heywood et al., 2002 ). Pada asasnya, perisian ini boleh didapati daripada syarikat swasta sahaja, yang merupakan syarikat ESRI. Produk perisian yang boleh didapati adalah dalam bentuk ArcGIS, ArcView, ArcGIS Server, ArcIMS, ArcSDE, ArcGIS Mobile, dan ArcPad (ESRI Malaysia Portal Rasmi). Perisian ini sentiasa diperbaharui dengan versi baru, agar pengguna boleh menggunakannya untuk menerap segala maklumat bagi tujuan perancangan, pengurusan, atau pemodelan. Di dalam perisian ini, ia boleh dikelaskan kepada beberapa jenis yang merangkumi input data spatial, pengurusan data atribut, paparan data, penerokaan data, analisis data, dan pemodelan GIS (Chang, 2008). Bahagian ini akan diterangkan dengan lebih lanjutnya di dalam kaedah GIS. Komponen terakhir yang terlibat adalah orang-orang yang menggunakannya, dimana ianya juga merujuk kepada pengguna GIS (Heywood et al., 2002). Para pengguna GIS memainkan peranan yang penting dalam perancangan, pelaksanaan, operasi sistem, dan pengambilan keputusan berdasarkan output. Pada dasarnya, seorang pengguna akan diberi satu tanggungjawab dalam mengendalikan satu projek kecil yang melibatkan reka bentuk, pelaksanaan, dan output. Hasil daripada maklumat baru tersebut akan digunakan oleh sesebuah korporat, dimana terdapat sekumpulan kakitangan akan berinteraksi dengan GIS dalam cara yang berbeza. Pada masa ini, majoriti kakitangan akan didedahkan dengan applikasi GIS, di mana perkhidmatan dan layanan staf, serta aliran kerja akan diambil kira untuk melihat sama ada keperluan untuk melakukan penyusunan semula syarikat, membekalkan latihan kepada kakitangan dan dapat memastikan maklumat mengalir dengan lebih baik terutama kepada pelanggan. Kajian ini dijalankan adalah untuk melihat dan mengetengahkan kewujudan faktor (atau kelemahan) dalam GIS agar pembaharuan terhadap perisian GIS dapat diubahkan kepada lebih mesra pengguna atau ‘friendly user’, dan membantu dalam mengalirkan maklumat yang boleh digunakan untuk sektor perniagaan, organisasi kerajaan, sektor kesihatan, dan sebagainya, yang boleh membekalkan maklumat secara tepat, jitu dan peratusan yang tinggi untuk berjaya (Cambell & Masser, 1995).

Kaedah GIS
Merujuk kepada perbincangan diatas, kaedah GIS juga merupakan salah satu komponen penting untuk mengendalikan sistem GIS selepas komponen asas (rajah 2). Kaedah-kaedah ini terdiri daripada input data spatial, pengurusan data atribut, paparan data, penerokaan data, analisis dan pemodelan data GIS; yang boleh menjelaskan sebagai berikut:

Input data spatial
Sebagai pengguna GIS, kita boleh menjalankan sesuatu analisis dengan menggunakan data yang ada atau dengan mencipta data baru. Kaedah ini adalah langkah pertama sebelum sebarang maklumat dimasukkan atau ‘key-in’ ke dalam GIS. Pada asasnya, data yang diperlolehi daripada jabatan lain dikenali sebagai data sekunder dan data ini boleh diambil daripada sektor kerajaan atau sektor swasta. Sementara itu, proses untuk menghasilkan data baru atau data spatial digital akan memerlukan maklumat daripada imej satelit, data GPS, tinjauan lapangan, alamat jalan, dan teks fail dengan koordinat-x, y (Chang, 2008) (Heywood et al., 2002). Namun demikian, jika maklumat diperolehi daripada peta, maka peta kertas masih kekal sebagai sumber data utama. Mana-mana kertas peta yang berada dalam bentuk ‘hard copy’ perlu melalui proses imbasan untuk menukar peta ke dalam format digital (Aronoff, 1989). Peta yang baru didigitalkan memerlukan penyuntingan dan transformasi geometri. Apabila proses pendigitan peta dilakukan, dan jika terdapat sebarang kesilapan seperti poligon hilang atau garis menyimpang, atau topologi yang melengkok dan poligon tidak tertutup rapat yang berkaitan dengan lokasi data ruang tertentu, pada dasarnya kesalahan ini boleh dihapuskan atau dibetulkan (Chang, 2008) (Heywood et al., 2002). Setelah proses pendigitan dilakukan, transformasi geometri akan terlibat untuk memindahkan peta digital berada dalam kedudukan yang sama seperti di atas peta sumber fizikal, yang merujuk kepada dunia sebenar sistem koordinat. Antara kelebihannya, transformasi geometri bukan sahaja boleh bertindak balas sebagai satu set titik kawalan untuk meminimumkan kesalahan transformasi, tetapi ia juga membantu dalam menukar imej dari satelit yang direkodkan imej dalam baris dan lajur kepada koordinat unjuran (Chang, 2008) (Heywood et al., 2002).

Pengurusan data atribut
Kemudian, sumber peta dapat dipindahkan kepada peta digital yang dapat dibaca oleh GIS, namun pangkalan data masih belum lengkap sepenuhnya kerana pengguna perlu memasukkan dan mengesahkan data atribut (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002) (Aronoff, 1989). Data atribut dalam GIS adalah ditakrifkan sebagai jadual, di mana setiap baris boleh diungkapkan sebagai ciri ruang, dan setiap lajur pula dilabelkan sebagai ciri. Oleh kerana itu, data atribut menjadi semakin mudah dan senang untuk proses input data, carian, pengambilan, manipulasi dan output. Jadi, proses untuk mereka bentuk pangkalan data yang dapat melihat perhubungan akan melibatkan dua unsur, yang merujuk kepada kunci data (boleh dirujuk sebagai sambungan antara catatan yang sesuai dalam dua jadual) dan jenis data (diguna untuk lihat bagaimana jadual bergabung dan berkait) (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Dalam maklumat tambahan, pengurusan data atribut boleh membantu untuk menambah atau memadam mana-mana bidang mahupun sebarang maklumat atau bahkan menciptakan medan maklumat baru dalam bidang yang ada.

Penerokaan data
Penerokaan data melibatkan aktiviti meneroka trend secara umum dalam data, atau boleh dilihat secara lebih dekat pada subset data, dan boleh fokus pada dua set data yang mungkin mempunyai hubungkait antara set data tersebut (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Pakej GIS adalah alat komputer yang mampu melakukan eksplorasi, dimana ia boleh memaparkan beberapa peta, graf dan jadual dengan menghubungkan kepada paparan komputer; yang juga dapat memilih subset data dari satu jadual yang dapat menonjolkan ciri kesamaan dalam graf dan peta (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Dengan kata lain, GIS mempunyai kemampuan untuk melakukan aktiviti penerokaan data dengan alat visual interaktif dan dinamik yang berkaitan. Eksplorasi Data juga mempunyai kelebihan dalam meneroka data ruang dan data atribut dengan berinteraksi bersama dengan klasifikasi data, pengumpulan data, dan peta perbandingan (Worboy & Duckham, 2003).

Analisis data
Dalam GIS, terdapat dua jenis format data yang boleh digunakan dalam menganalisis data, iaitu data vektor dan data raster (Chang, 2008). Dalam data vektor, analisis ini akan melibatkan beberapa kaedah seperti penimbalan atau ‘buffering’, pertindihan atau ‘overlay’, pengukuran jarak, statistik ruang, dan manipulasi peta (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Sementara itu, data raster pula boleh membantu dalam menganalisis seperti pengumpulan kepada tempatan, kaedah kejiranan, kaedah berzon, dan kaedah operasi global (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Dalam penimbalan, kaedah ini boleh digunakan untuk menciptakan zon penampan daripada ciri yang dipilih untuk menentukan sesuatu kawasan tertentu; pertindihan pula akan digunakan untuk menggabungkan geometri dan ciri-ciri di lapisan yang berbeza untuk menghasilkan maklumat atau output; pengukuran jarak digunakan untuk mengira jarak antara ciri-ciri ruang; statistik spatial adalah untuk mengesan spatial kebergantungan dan corak diantara ciri-ciri; dan manipulasi peta adalah untuk mengurus dan mengubah lapisan dalam pangkalan data (Chang, 2008). Namun, keadaan adalah berbeza untuk data raster, dimana kaedahnya akan melibatkan dengan fungsi matematik dalam format sel. Sebagai contoh, operasi tempatan adalah sama dengan sel individu; operasi kejiranan adalah sama dengan 3-ke-3 sel; operasi zon adalah sama dengan sekumpulan sel-sel dengan nilai yang sama atau keserupaan ciri-ciri; dan operasi global adalah sama dengan seluruh raster (Chang, 2008).

Paparan data dan output data
Sebagai pengguna dan pakar GIS, adalah kewajipan bagi mereka untuk berurusan dengan pembuatan dan penghasilan peta dalam kehidupan seharian. Pada dasarnya peta akan disediakan untuk tujuan dipersembahkan atau visualisasi data sahaja yang berasal dari permintaan data dan analisis data; dan sebagian besar peta hadir dalam bentuk tajuk, sub-tajuk, badan, legenda, arah mata angin, bar skala, penghargaan, garisan pemisahan dan persempadanan (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Dengan kata lain, peta yang dihasilkan harus mempunyai fungsi yang diperlukan untuk keperluan pengguna (Aronoff, 1989). Unsur-unsur dalam peta adalah penting bagi pembaca peta untuk menerima maklumat terutamanya melibatkan dengan ruang (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Dalam proses untuk menghasilkan peta, pembuat peta akan perlu melibatkan beberapa prosedur seperti memilih unsur-unsur yang sesuai untuk mewakili maklumat spatial dan mereka bentuk peta. Jika kedua-duanya dilakukan dengan cuai, kualiti peta yang dihasilkan akan menjadi teruk dan penuh dengan maklumat yang tidak berguna (Chang, 2008). Sebagai contoh, jika pembuat peta tidak mempunyai pemahaman asas mengenai simbol peta dan warna akan menyebabkan peta dihasilkan dalam kualiti buruk dengan maklumat yang berbeza dalam kesesuaian dengan standard kartografi. Situasi ini adalah sama dalam perancangan peta, jika pembuat peta itu tidak mempunyai pengalaman dalam susunan atur dan hierarki visual akan menghasilkan peta yang boleh mengelirukan pembaca untuk mendapatkan maklumat (Chang, 2008) (Worboy & Duckham, 2003) (Heywood et al., 2002). Akhir sekali, laporan yang dikeluarkan daripada GIS boleh dihasilkan dalam bentuk peta, jadual statistik, atau teks dalam bentuk salinan keras seperti kertas dan atau softcopy seperti fail elektronik (Aronoff, 1989).

Aplikasi GIS
GIS telah banyak digunakan dalam pelbagai aktiviti (Rajah 3) (Heywood et al., 2002). Dalam sektor kerajaan terutama bagi sosio-ekonomi, kebiasaannya GIS akan digunakan dalam jabatan kesihatan, jabatan kerajaan tempatan, jabatan perancangan pengangkutan, jabatan perancangan perkhidmatan, dan jabatan pengurusan bandar (Heywood et al., 2002). Bukan itu sahaja, GIS juga banyak terlibat dalam aktiviti utiliti, di mana GIS digunakan dalam pengurusan rangkaian, penyediaan perkhidmatan, telekomunikasi, dan pembaikan kecemasan (Heywood et al., 2002). Sementara itu, agensi-agensi pertahanan akan menggunakan GIS untuk mengenal pasti tapak, perancangan sokongan taktikal, pemodelan arahan mudah alih, dan penyepaduan data perisikan (Heywood et al., 2002). Seterusnya, sektor perdagangan dan sektor perniagaan juga menggunakan GIS untuk melihat analisis pasaran saham, insurans, pengurusan kewangan, pemasaran langsung, pemasaran sasaran, dan lokasi tapak runcit (Heywood et al., 2002). Akhir sekali, GIS menjadi alat penting dalam pengurusan alam sekitar, di mana GIS digunakan dalam pemilihan lokasi tapak pelupusan dan pemetaan potensi mineral, pemantauan pencemaran, penilaian risiko bahaya semula jadi, pengurusan sumber, dan penilaian kesan alam sekitar (Heywood et al., 2002).

Kelebihan dan kekurangan GIS
Terdapat beberapa kelebihan dan kekurangan dalam penggunaan GIS (Heywood et al., 2002). Kelebihan GIS dapat membantu dalam meningkatkan integrasi organisasi; membolehkan pengguna untuk melihat, memahami, menyoal, menafsirkan, dan menggambarkan data dalam banyak cara dan mengungkapkannya dengan hubungan, pola, dan trend, dalam bentuk peta, globe, laporan, dan carta; menyediakan soalan-jawapan dan menyelesaikan masalah dengan melihat kepada data dengan cepat dan mudah difahami; membantu untuk diintegrasikan ke dalam setiap kerangka sistem maklumat perusahaan; dan menyediakan lebih banyak peluang pekerjaan. Namun, kelemahan dalam menggunakan GIS adalah peralatan GIS akan memerlukan kos yang agak mahal; data diperlukan dalam sejumlah yang besar untuk input sebelum melakukan sebarang analisis; kegagalan dalam memulakan atau mengekalkan usaha tambahan untuk melaksanakan sepenuhnya GIS (contohnya tambahan data daripada permukaan bumi ke dalam GIS), tetapi berkemungkinan harapan yang besar itu masih ada; dan apabila data yang dipaparkan dalam skala yang lebih besar, kesalahan teknikal dalam geografi berkemungkinan boleh berlaku disebabkan oleh peningkatan semula jadi bentuk muka bimu di pusingan.


Kesimpulan

Kesimpulannya, GIS menjadi alat yang penting dalam perspektif komputer pada masa kini kerana GIS mempunyai keupayaan aplikasi dalam pelbagai bidang, misalnya perancangan bandar dan kartografi, penilaian kesan alam sekitar dan pengurusan sumber asli. Selain itu, GPS atau Sistem Kedudukan Global menjadi alat untuk memberi maklumat tentang sesuatu lokasi pelancongan dan manfaat dalam mengesan sesuatu bahan tertentu. GIS juga memainkan peranan dalam perspektif perniagaan, dimana alat ini adalah sangat berkesan dalam pengiklanan dan pemasaran, jualan, dan logistik dimana ianya digunakan untuk mencari dan memulakan perniagaan seperti tapak perniagaan yang strategik. Sebagai umum, pengguna GIS boleh melibatkan dengan polis dan agensi-agensi penguatkuasaan undang-undang, strategi perancangan, perhutanan, industri, jurutera alam sekitar, profesional hartanah, profesional telekomunikasi, organisasi tindak balas kecemasan, jabatan kerajaan (daerah dan persekutuan), kesihatan, pengangkutan, geografi, dan pembangunan pemasaran. Penyelidikan ini menyediakan platform untuk memahami lebih lanjut tentang komponen, kaedah, dan aplikasi GIS, terutama bagi pengguna baru yang mempunyai minat untuk mempelajari tentang alat GIS. Akhir sekali, walaupun terdapat beberapa kelemahan di dalam GIS, tetapi kelemahan tersebut tidak akan menghalang dan menghentikan pengguna GIS untuk mengaplikasikan di dalam kehidupan seharian yang sebenar.


Rujukan

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Burrough PA (1986) Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Cambell H, Masser I (1995) GIS In Organizations: How Effective Are GIS In Practice? International Journal of Geographical Information Science 13, 67-84.

Chang KS (2008) Introduction to Geographic Information Systems. Forth edition. McGraw-Hill International Edition.

Coppocck JT, Rhind WR (1991) The history of GIS. Geographical information systems: Principles and Applications 1 1, 21-43.

Department of the Environment (1987) Handling Geographic Information. Report of the Committee of Enquiry chaired by Lord Chorley. HMSO, London.

ESRI Malaysia Official Portal (n.d). ESRI Products. Available from: http://www.esrimalaysia.com.my/products.html.Heywood I, Cornelius S, Carver S (2002) An introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 2nd ed.

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Rhind DW (1989) Why GIS? ARC News (Summer), 28-9.

Star JL, Estes JE (1990) Geographic Information Systems: An introduction. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.Worboys M, Duckham M (2003) GIS: A computing perspective, 2nd ed. Taylor and Francis, London.

Kualiti air Sungai UTM: Satu penilaian awal berpandukan enam parameter Indeks Kualiti Air

Abstrak

Sudah menjadi pengetahuan umum bahawa pembangunan pesat telah mencemarkan banyak sungai di Malaysia di mana daripada 150 batang sungai utama, 41peratus telah tercemar. Kajian ini menampilkan satu lagi contoh hakikat ini. Kualiti air Sungai UTM diniali dengan berpandukan enam parameter utama Indeks Kualiti Air, iaitu Oksigen Terlarut (DO), Permintaan Oksigen Biokimia (BOD), Permintaan Oksigen Kimia (COD), Nitrogen Ammonia (NH3N), Indeks Kealkalian (pH), dan Pepejal Terampai (SS). Manakala suhu (°C) sebagai faktor luaran juga turut diambil kira dalam mempengaruhi kepekatan enam parameter kualiti air sungai tersebut. Sebanyak lapan stesen yang terletak di sepanjang Sungai UTM telah dijadikan sampel kajian ini. Analisis data telah dilakukan di tapak dan di makmal. Hasil analisis menunjukkan COD, BOD, dan NH3N didapati tinggi di beberapa stesen di bahagian pertengahan Sungai UTM, diikuti dengan parameter SS yang mempunyai nilai tinggi di bahagian hulu Sungai UTM, dan nilai parameter DO pula tinggi di akhir bahagian pertengahan dan muara Sungai UTM. Manakala pH pula berada pada keadaan neutral, iaitu tidak berasid dan tidak beralkali. Pencemaran ini berlaku disebabkan pelepasan sisa cecair dan pepejal akibat aktiviti pembasuhan, pembinaan, pemeliharaan kuda dan padang permainan di kawasan berhampiran. Oleh itu, pengurusan dan pengawalan harus diperketatkan bagi mengelakkan pencemaran air sungai UTM daripada berterusan.

Kata Kunci: kepekatan, pencemaran air, pengawetan, penilaian kualiti air, sisa, sumber air

Abstract
It is a well-known fact that rapid development has caused widespread water pollution in Malaysia where 41 per cent of the 150 main rivers are polluted. This study provides another illustration of this fact . The water quality of the UTM River was assessed according to the six main parameters of Water Quality Index, namely, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3N), Alcalinity or Acidity Index (pH), and Suspended Solid (SS). Water temperature (°C) was considered as an external factor and a total of eight stations along UTM River are choosen as samples for the study. The results revealed that the value of COD, BOD, and NH3N was high at some stations in the middle of the river. The SS parameter that had high value at the upstream, and the DO parameter value was high at the middle-end and at the downstream. The pH value is in neutral condition where neither it is acidic nor alkaline. The overall contamination of the UTM river occured due to liquid and solid waste from construction, horse stables and football fields. Tightening solid waste disposal along the river would reduce this pollution trend.

Keywords: pollutants, solid waste, water pollution, water quality assessment, Water Quality Index, water resources


Citation of Article:
Maarof, N., & Hua, A.K. (2015). Kualiti air Sungai UTM: Satu penilaian awal berpandukan enam parameter Indeks Kualiti Air. Geografia Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 11(1), 107-115.

Pengenalan

Malaysia merupakan sebuah negara yang sedang membangun dengan pesat yang mampu bersaing dengan negera-negara Asia lain seperti Singapura dan Korea Selatan. Kemajuan ini juga membawa kepada peningkatan dalam pembangunan terhadap kawasan berhampiran sungai di negara ini. Menurut Jabatan Alam Sekitar (2008), Semenanjung Malaysia mempunyai 150 batang sungai utama yang mengalir di setiap negeri (Jadual 1). Antara sungai yang terpanjang di Semenanjung Malaysia termasuklah Sungai Pahang, Sungai Kelantan dan Sungai Perak. Di negeri Sabah dan Sarawak sungai utamanya termasuklah Sungai Rajang dan Sungai Baram. Sungai-sungai ini merupakan nadir bagi kehidupan manusia di kawasan tersebut. Sekalipun dalam era moden, manusia masih terus ‘bergantung’ kepadanya untuk mendapatkan sumber semula jadi, iaitu sumber air. Oleh kerana kepentinganya kepada kehidupan manusia, justeru sungai sering menjadi tajuk perbincangan dalam kalangan masyarakat. Isu utama yang sering dibincangkan adalah kualiti air sungai yang semakin merosot. Kemerosotan kualiti air sungai adalah disebabkan oleh pencemaran daripada pelbagai bahan pencemar. Di Malaysia, pencemaran air sungai boleh berlaku akibat daripada pembuangan sisa kumbahan daripada kawasan bandar. Proses pembandaran dan perindustrian yang pesat telah menyebabkan peningkatan kadar pembuangan bahan sisa ke dalam sistem akuatik yang akhirnya menyebabkan kualiti air merosot. Jabatan Alam Sekitar Malaysia (2008) melaporkan bahawa punca utama yang menyebabkan kemerosotan kualiti air sungai ialah kumbahan domestik, perindustrian, penternakan haiwan dan industri berasaskan pertanian. Kemerosotan kualiti air ini boleh menyebabkan keadaan asalnya berubah bentuk, dan keadaan ini boleh diukur dengan merujuk kepada parameter seprti parameter fizikal, parameter kimia, parameter biologi, dan logam.

Secara umumnya, ramai yang tidak memahami maksud yang tersirat dan tersurat tentang pencemaran air sungai. Pencemaran air sungai adalah merujuk kepada apa jua bahan yang berbahaya terhadap manusia ataupun alam sekitar yang masuk ke dalam sumber air di mana ianya tidak sepatutnya hadir. Jika pun hadir jumlah bahan berbahaya tersebut sepatutnya tidak melebihi aras yang dibenarkan. Sebenarnya, pencemaran air yang berlaku di sesebuah sungai adalah berpunca daripada dua sumber utama, iaitu sama ada punca yang bertitik atau punca yang tidak bertitik (Shrestha & Kazama, 2007; Young et al., 1989; Puckett, 1995; Udoyara & Robert, 1994). Punca bertitik merujuk kepada punca pencemaran yang mudah dan dapat dikesan dengan mata kasar di mana lazimnya aktiviti pencemar jenis ini menyalurkan terus sisa buangan ke dalam sesuatu sistem saliran yang akhirnya mengalir ke dalam sungai. Aktiviti daripada jenis ini termasuklah kegiatan harian penduduk bandar yang membuang bahan sisa seperti kumbahan domestik, pembetungan najis dan perniagaan; aktiviti penternakan turut melepaskan sisa kumbahan; aktiviti pertanian yang menyalurkan sisa pepejal, racun serangga dan baja kimia ke dalam sungai; dan industri pembuatan yang juga menyalurkan sisa cecair ke dalam sungai (Neumann et al., 2003; Fernando et al., 2005). Punca tidak bertitik pula adalah punca yang berupa agen dan bahan pencemarnya yang sumber asalnya tidak dapat dikesan tetapi bahan pencemarannya didapati mengalir ke dalam sungai, dan keadaan ini didorong oleh air hujan atau pelepasan air sisa di atas tanah yang boleh membawa kepada air larian permukaan atau resapan ke dalam tanah (Zhu et al., 2011; Lai et al., 2011). Bahan-bahan pencemar ini boleh dibawa oleh air larian permukaan ke dalam sungai, mahupun melalui air bawah tanah. Oleh itu, pencemaran melalui punca tidak bertitik adalah sukar untuk dilihat dan dinilai sumbangannya terhadap kadar penurunan kualiti air sungai. Pencemaran air sungai boleh dikatakan meningkat setiap tahun dan berlaku secara meluas. Perkara ini boleh dibuktikan melalui laporan Jabatan Alam Sekitar yang merekodkan 15,740 pencemaran air berlaku dalam tahun 2012 dan ianya adalah berpunca daripada pelbagai sumber seperti loji rawatan air sisa (63%), industri pembuatan (29%), ladang ternakan haiwan (5%), dan industri pertanian (3%) (DoE, 2012) (Rajah 1). Pencemaran air sungai tidak hanya berlaku di muara dan bahagian tengah sungai yang besar tetapi juga melibatkan hulu sungai sekalipun sungai yang kecil. Sehubungan itu, artikel ini hanya menumpukan kepada skop yang agak kecil, iaitu menilai kualiti air sungai yang mengalir di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (dalam kajian ini disebut Sungai UTM) dengan merujuk kepada enam parameter Indeks Kualiti Air (IKA).

Kaedah

Kajian ini dilakukan di Sungai UTM, iaitu sungai yang mengalir melalui kampus Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai. Kawasan kajian ini dipilih berdasarkan beberapa perkara, iaitu tingginya kebarangkalian sungai ini mengalami pencemaran, serta wujudnya kedua-dua jenis punca pencemaran sama ada punca bertitik ataupun punca tidak bertitik. Pengambilan sampel air dilakukan sepanjang sungai yang mengalir di kampus UTM, iaitu di antara zon sekitar Arked Chengal dan kawasan rekrasi UTM, dengan pembahagian kepada hulu sungai, pertengahan sungai, dan hilir sungai. Sebanyak lapan stesen ditetapkan bagi tujuan pengambilan sampel air untuk dianalisis (Rajah 2 dan Jadual 2).

Merujuk kepada persampelan dan proses pengawetan air pula, botol sampel bersukatan dua liter dicuci dengan air bersih untuk membuang kotoran yang ada pada botol sampel. Sampel air akan diambil dengan menggunakan kaedah grab sampling atau dikenali sebagai pengambilan sampel air dengan tangan. Kaedah ini bersesuaian dengan keadaan Sungai UTM yang tidak terlalu dalam dan tidak lebar. Kaedah persampelan komposit yang lazim digunakan dalam kajian air sungai lebih sesuai sekiranya keadaan sungai adalah besar, dalam dan lebar dengan arus yang deras (AWWA, 2005). Sampel air yang diambil diawetkan dengan menggunakan asid sulfurik (H2SO4) untuk merendahkan kadar keaktifan mikroorganisma organik dalam sampel air. Sampel air seterusnya dimasukkan ke dalam bekas polistren berisi air. Setelah itu sampel akan dibawa ke makmal dan untuk disimpan. Sampel air haruslah disejukkan di bawah suhu empat darjah Celcius. Sebelum analisis makmal dilakukan, sampel air haruslah dibiarkan terlebih dahulu supaya suhunya mencapai suhu bilik. Suhu boleh mempengaruhi kejituan nilai parameter yang diuji. Ini kerana parameter tersebut lazimnya sensitif terhadap perubahan suhu.

Analisis kualiti air sungai boleh dilakukan di tapak kajian dan di makmal. Analisis bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti kandungan keenam-enam parameter Indeks Kualiti Air (IKA) yang terdapat di dalam air sungai. Parameter IKA yang dianalisis di tapak adalah suhu air, Oksigen Terlarut (DO) dan Indeks Kealkalian atau Keasidan (pH). Manakala parameter yang dianalisis di makmal adalah Permintaan Oksigen Kimia (COD), Nitrogen Ammonia (NH3N), Permintaan Oksigen Biokimia (BOD), dan Pepejal Terampai (SS) (Salam & Mahmood, 1988; Kasan, 2006). Sebagai maklumat tambahan, bagi menilai parameter Pepejal Terampai kaedah penurasan yang menggunakan kertas turas dilakukan untuk menapis dan mengasingkan pepejal daripada larutan. Semasa analisis dijalankan, kesemua enam parameter sama ada fizikal atau kimia dikira mengikut formula yang ditetapkan oleh Jabatan Alam Sekitar dan ia berbeza-beza antara satu parameter dengan satu parameter lain. Setiap sub parameter untuk kesemua enam parameter dianalisis sebanyak tiga kali bagi memastikan ketepatan nilai bacaan setiap parameter yang diuji.

Hasil Kajian dan Perbincangan

Hasil analisis ke atas setiap parameter kualiti air Sungai UTM adalah seperti ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 3.

Jadual 3 menunjukkan analisis yang berjaya dilakukan dengan melibatkan tahap Oksigen Terlarut (DO), Permintaan Biokimia (BOD), Permintaan Kimia (COD), Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3N), Pepejal Terampai (SS), dan pH (Indeks Kealkalian atau Keasidan). Walaubagaimanapun, suhu air Sungai UTM juga diambil kira sebagai faktor luaran yang boleh mempengaruhi abiliti air untuk melarut oksigen. Selain itu, parameter suhu air juga penting dalam memberi gambaran sama Sungai UTM cukup dilindungi oleh pancaran matahari.

Oksigen Terlarut (DO)

Oksigen Terlarut merupakan salah satu parameter kualiti air yang menunjukkan tentang tahap Oksigen Terlarut dalam air apabila bersentuhan dengan udara di atmosfera. Kuantiti Oksigen Terlarut bergantung kepada tekanan udara, suhu dan kandungan garam terlarut. Jadual 3 menunjukkan keputusan analisis kepekatan DO dalam Sungai UTM dengan nilai paling tinggi ialah 5.62 mg/L di Stesen E dan nilai DO paling rendah adalah 3.83 mg/L di Stesen B. Jika dilihat secara keseluruhannya, nilai DO yang normal perlu berada pada tahap 7 mg/L dan ke atas (JAS, 2008), namun keputusan analisis tersebut menunjukkan kebanyakan nilai DO bagi 8 stesen adalah berada pada kedudukan 3 mg/L hingga 5mg/L dan keadaan ini membuktikan berlakunya kemorosotan kualiti air atau dikategorikan sebagai sederhana tercemar. Keadaan ini berlaku disebabkan oleh pelepasan air basuhan terutama daripada aktiviti pembinaan blok baru Makmal Kejuruteraan Awam dan Fakulti Mekanikal yang membuang bahan sisa buangan tersebut ke dalam longkang dan membiarkan ianya mengalir ke dalam sungai tanpa pengurusan air sisa. Jika aktiviti pelepasan sisa buangan ini berterusan tanpa kawalan, maka pencemaran ini akan menjejaskan kualiti hidupan akuatik disebabkan kadar oksigen terlarut yang terdapat di dalam air adalah sangat rendah dan boleh membawa kepada kematian.

Permintaan Oksigen Biokimia (BOD)

Permintaan Oksigen Biokimia merupakan ukuran kuantiti oksigen yang diperlukan mikro organisma untuk mengoksidakan bahan organik dalam keadaan berudara. Ujian parameter BOD dijalankan untuk mengetahui kuantiti oksigen yang digunakan semasa tindak balas penguraian bahan organik yang berlaku secara semula jadi. Merujuk kepada JAS (2008), tahap pengukuran nilai BOD air sungai yang bersih adalah sepatutnya berada pada nilai kurang daripada 1 mg/L. Merujuk kepada keputusan analisis Jadual 3, nilai BOD paling tinggi adalah 5.2945 di Stesen B dan nilai BOD paling rendah adalah 3.144 di Stesen H. Keputusan nilai BOD setiap stesen di sepanjang Sungai UTM menunjukkan ianya berada pada tahap 3 mg/L hingga 5 mg/L dan keadaan ini membuktikan kualiti air bagi parameter BOD adalah sederhana tercemar. Punca utama yang menyebabkan pencemaran air sungai boleh berlaku adalah sisa air basuhan, sisa pembinaan dan sisa kumbahan daripada kabin pekerja. Oleh kerana tercemar, air Sungai UTM yang demikain memerlukan rawatan yang intensif sebelum ianya boleh digunakan untuk minuman, khususnya ternakan.

Permintaan Oksigen Kimia (COD)

Parameter Permintaan Oksigen Kimia (COD) lazimnya digunakan untuk menyukat air yang tercemar oleh bahan kimia hasil daripada aktiviti manusia, dan ia boleh ditakrifkan sebagai jumlah oksigen yang diperlukan bagi pengoksidaan sesuatu bahan sebatian. Analisis menunjukkan nilai bacaan parameter COD paling rendah dicatatkan di Stesen A, iaitu 19 mg/L dan nilai ini terus meningkat sehingga nilai tertinggi, iaitu 29 mg/L di Stesen G. Bacaan parameter COD sepanjang Sungai UTM adalah tidak seragam, di mana catatan menunjukkan terdapatnya pola turun-naik yang ketara di setiap lapan stesen persampelan dan nilainya berada pada tahap melebihi nilai piawaian air bersih bagi parameter COD, iaitu 10 mg/L (JAS, 2008). Kenaikan nilai COD boleh dikaitkan dengan pembuangan sisa kimia seperti raksa dan kromium daripada projek pembinaan di kawasan berdekatan. Oleh itu, jika aktiviti pembinaan tidak dikawal dan tidak teratur, maka projek pembinaan tersebut boleh menyebabkan pencemaran Sungai UTM yang lebih serius dan pencemaran tersebut berbahaya kepada manusia dari segi penyakit kekurangan kromium, kerosakan otak dan hati.

Nitrogen Ammonia (NH3N)

Analisis Nitrogen Ammonia boleh digunakan untuk mengesan pencemaran yang disebabkan oleh baja tanaman (pertanian), najis haiwan dan juga sisa kumbahan domestik. Ammonia adalah sebatian yang biasanya terdiri daripada proses degradasi bahan organik bernitrogen. Ammonia yang tidak terion adalah toksik kepada hidupan akuatik. Apabila larut di dalam air, NH3 akan bertindak balas dengan air untuk membentuk ion ammonia NH4 dengan bakinya kekal sebagai NH3. NH3 boleh dioksidakan kepada nitrit NO2 dan kemudiannya kepada nitrat NO3 oleh bakteria Nitrosomonas dan nitrobacter. Proses pengoksidaan NH3 kepada NO3 pula menggunakan oksigen terlarut dalam kuantiti yang banyak. Kandungan NH3 dalam air diukur berdasarkan jumlah kepekatan ammonia. NH3 dalam konsentrasi yang sedikit dan juga NO3 menjadi sumber penting kepada pertumbuhan alga. Sebenarnya, kriteria air untuk hidupan akuatik bagi kandungan NH3N adalah 0.02 mg/L (Cornwell & Dawis, 1991). Merujuk kepada analisis penyelidikan ini, nilai Nitrogen Ammonia yang paling tinggi adalah 1.1 di Stesen H dan nilai paling rendah adalah 0.6 di Stesen D dan Stesen F. Peningkatan nilai di stesen H adalah disebabkan oleh kewujudan kandang kuda, padang permainan dan padang hoki di zon berkenaan. Sisa kumbahan dan buangan dari kawasan tersebut menjadi penyubang utama pencemaran air Sungai UTM. Proses larian permukaan yang membawa bersama sisa najis kuda daripada kandang kuda, sisa baja dan bahan lain dari padang permainan, ke dalam sungai tersebut. Selain itu, pertembungan antara sungai kecil dengan Sungai UTM juga menyebabkan nilai di Stesen H meningkat secara mendadak kerana sungai kecil tersebut membawa effluen dari pusat kumbahan UTM dan mengalirkan ke dalam sungai utama, iaitu Sungai UTM. Jika pencemaran ini berterusan, maka ia boleh merosakkan kesihatan manusia seperti menyebabkan sesak nafas, batuk, dan boleh menyebabkan kematian.

Indeks Kealkalian (pH)

Nilai pH merupakan indeks kealkalian atau keasidan yang penting. Parameter ini dapat mengesan kandungan asid atau bes daripada bahan galian dan bahan organik, dalam air sungai. Ia digunakan untuk mengenal pasti sama ada air sungai tersebut dalam keadaan berasid ataupun beralkali dengan mengukur kepekatan ion-ion hidrogen yang terdapat di dalam air tersebut. Julat nilai pH adalah di antara 0 hingga 14. Nilai pH 7 menunjukkan sifat yang neutral (baik). Nilai pH kurang daripada 7 menandakan air sungai bersifat asid. Seterusnya jika bacaan nilai pH melebihi 7 air sungai tersebut bersifat alkali. Nilai pH air sungai penting dalam menentukan kebolehidupan organisma dan bakteria. Ini kerana nilai pH yang terlalu tinggi atau terlalu rendah tidak sesuai bagi kehidupan organisma dan bakteria. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa nilai pH bagi Sungai UTM adalah berbeza dari satu stesen ke satu stesen yang lain. Bacaan terendah direkodkan oleh Stesen A (6.69) manakala bacaan tertinggi direkodkan pada Stesen H (7.21). Ini menunjukkan secara keseluruhan purata Indeks Kealkalian (pH) air Sungai UTM menghampiri 7. Oleh itu dapat dikatakan bahawa air sungai tersebut masih lagi dalam keadaan selamat dan tidak terlalu berbahaya kepada hidupan. Aktiviti yang terdapat di sekitar stesen-stesen kajian tidak banyak mempengaruhi tahap kealkalian air Sungai UTM. Kadar pelepasan bahan galian dan organik agak terkawal. Kualiti air Sungai UTM perlu dikekalkan berada pada tahap kurang berasid kerana ianya berbahaya kepada manusia. Kehadirannya yang belebihan dalam badan manusia boleh dikaitkan dengan penyakit gout, kencing manis, penyakit jantung, dan darah tinggi; ataupun jika terlalu beralkali boleh menyebabkan penyakit seperti insiden pembentukan batu hempedu, batu ginjal, dan kehadiran alkali yang tinggi dalam darah juga memperberatkan kerja ginjal.

Pepejal Terampai (SS)

Pepejal terampai merupakan zarah-zarah bukan organik dalam air yang bersaiz lebih besar daripada 0.001 mm. Kebanyakan pepejal terampai wujud dalam sisa domestik yang terdiri daripada bahan organik. Jumlah pepejal terampai dalam kajian ini adalah jumlah pepejal yang terturas dalam proses penurasan yang kemudiannya dipanaskan pada suhu 103 °C. Ianya diukur berdasarkan kepekatan dalam unit mg/L (Tchobanoglous et al., 1985). Keputusan menunjukkan nilai parameter Pepejal Terampai paling tinggi adalah 37 mg/L di Stesen C dan nilai paling rendah ialah 14 mg/L di Stesen E. Analisis tersebut juga membuktikan bahawa pembangunan pesat seperti pembinaan bangunan dan jalan raya telah meningkatkan kadar kelajuan aliran air di permukaan tanah. Aliran air yang deras mampu mengangkut sisa-sisa pepejal ke dalam sungai. Misalnya kerja-kerja pembinaan bangunan baharu di Makmal Kejuruteraan Awam dan Fakulti Mekanikal yang terletak berhampiran Sungai UTM, telah meninggalkan banyak sisa pepejal seperti kayu, kotak, kertas selain kelodak. Bahan sisa tersebut diangkut dan akhirnya hanyut ke Sungai UTM. Selain itu, kekuatan dan kelajuan air yang mengalir menghakis tebing sungai dan menyumbangkan kepada pencemaran bahan pepejal terampai khususnya kelodak dan bahan organik.


Kesimpulan

Penyelidikan ini dijalankan khusus untuk menilai parameter kualiti air di Sungai UTM yang berpandukan kepada enam parameter utama Indeks Kualiti Air (IKA). Secara keseluruhannya, hasil analisis menunjukkan bahawa kualiti air Sungai UTM adalah pada tahap sederhana tercemar atau berada pada tahap kelas III. Hal ini kerana kadar konsentrasi parameter seperti COD, BOD, dan NH3N didapati tinggi di beberapa stesen di bahagian pertengahan sungai, diikuti dengan parameter SS yang mempunyai nilai tinggi di bahagian hulu Sungai UTM, dan nilai parameter DO tinggi di bahagian pertengahan dan muara Sungai UTM. Manakala pH pula berada pada keadaan neutral, iaitu tidak berasid dan tidak beralkali. Pencemaran ini berlaku disebabkan pelepasan sisa cecair dan pepejal akibat aktiviti pembasuhan, pembinaan, pemeliharaan kuda dan padang permainan di kawasan berhampiran. Aktiviti tersebut dijalankan sangat berdekatan dengan Sungai UTM. Hal ini menyumbangkan kepada berlakunya pencemaran air sungai tersebut. Pencemaran air di Sungai UTM berpunca daripada pencemaran titik dan tidak bertitik. Pencemaran tersebut bukan sahaja mengganggu ekosistem yang akhirnya menjejaskan hidupan air, malah ianya juga boleh menjejaskan kualiti hidup manusia melalui penyebaran penyakit yang berbahaya. Oleh itu, langkah pengawalan dan pengurusan yang lebih berkesan wajar dilakukan agar tahap pencemaran tidak berterusan sehingga mencapai tahap yang berbahaya dan tidak dapat diselamatkan.

Rujukan

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Sustainable Highland Development through Stakeholders’ Perceptions on Agro EcoTourism in Cameron Highlands: A Preliminary Finding

Abstract

Cameron Highlands was discovered in 1885 and was developed as a hill station. It first served as a quaint retreat destination for the British residence where the urban morphology of its little town centres were strongly characterised by colonial architecture such as bungalows, institutional buildings and government offices, shophouses and market stalls. Eventually due to economic pressure and location potentials, more land was opened for tea plantations and vegetable and flower industries. Conversely, recent rapid uncontrolled developments in the built environment and agricultural sectors have tarnished its natural environment, old-world charm and historical values. If this trend persists, the popularity of Cameron Highlands as a vacation destination for local and foreign visitors may be badly affected. This research paper seeks to determine the perception of local stakeholders and tourists of the development in Cameron Highlands and whether they agree that agro-ecotourism can be used as a tool to achieve sustainability in the area. This paper is an assessment of a pilot test to determine initial perceptions toward Cameron Highlands development. The pilot test sample size was 41 respondents, comprising local authorities, local communities and NGOs, as well as local and international tourists. The results showed that the majority agreed that agroecotourism can generate a sustainable income and preserve the environment while ensuring sustainability through fair trade.

Keywords: -


Citation of Article:
Ariffin, A. R. M., Ali, Z. M., Zainol, R., Rahman, S., Ang, K. H., & Sabran, N. (2014). Sustainable highland development through stakeholders’ perceptions on agro ecotourism in Cameron Highlands: A preliminary finding. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol. 12, p. 01086). EDP Sciences.

Introduction

Cameron Highlands was discovered by the British surveyor William Cameron in 1885 [1]. The area was later developed as a Hill Station by the British government. The Cameron Highlands countryside is endowed with invaluable historical and natural environments, and is a popular tourism destination in Malaysia. The highlands are also well known as one of the oldest and largest hill resorts in Malaysia [2]. During British colonial rule, Cameron Highlands was a popular rest area because of its cool climate and scenic settings. After the Malaysian independence in 1957, the highlands were promoted as a tourism destination and become more popular in the 1980s with the availability of hotels and better roads. Thereafter, through the 9th Malaysian Plan, the Malaysian government opened opportunities for farmers to expand and diversify agricultural products and other related industries, such as agrotourism. The importance of local participation in tourism was also promoted in the 7th Malaysian Plan 1996 to 2000 [3]. All of these factors led to the development of agro-and ecotourism products. In general, agrotourism includes the promotion of areas such as tea plantations and strawberry farms, as well as vegetable and flower farms as tourism destinations; while ecotourism encompasses the promotion of forest reserves, forest trails/jungle trekking, waterfalls and rivers [4]. Initial tourism development in Cameron Highlands only focused on tea plantations [5].

1.1 Marriage Between Agriculture and Ecotourism

Agrotourism can be defined as ‘any practice developed on a working farm with the purpose of attracting visitors’ [6]. Meanwhile, ecotourism can be defined as ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people’ [7]. Both tourism activities are believed to be able to bring economic value and increase visitor numbers to Cameron Highlands with less harm to the environment. For example, the natural ambiance and climate of a geographical location can increase tourist satisfaction levels [5]. In addition, agrotourism generates a steady income to farmers, eventually increases land value and also generates job opportunities to the community [5]. With increased tourist numbers local incomes and wages increase rapidly. These activities promote the economic value of Cameron Highlands and the country as a whole. A number of destinations worldwide use tea plantations as an agro-tourism attraction, such as Lembang in Indonesia [9] Nuwara Eliya in Sri Lanka [9], and Darjeeling in Indian Himalaya [10]. The natural environment is regularly used as ecotourism attractions, such as Taman Negara [11], Kota Kinabalu in Sabah [12], and Bario in Sarawak [13], all of which are in Malaysia.


2. Cameron Highlands Issues & Challenges

Cameron Highlands has shown rapid development in agricultural and mass tourism since the 1980s. Past researches on Cameron Highlands has shown that there has been a reduction in its environmental quality as a result of recent rapid development. Monitoring highland areas and the scale of development has been difficult because of its high altitude and remoteness [14]. Illegal farming activities are also hard to curb. Sensible development and land use planning need to be take into consideration of the natural and sensitive habitats; serious damage could result from reckless overdevelopment [15]. A study by Yee and Chan (2006) concurs with this stand; they found that over development in highland areas is a main cause of landslides. St the same time, other studies have shown that Cameron Highlands’ agricultural produce and tourism activities have contributed positively towards the country’s economic growth.

Farming methods used is another issue to be considered in order to ensure sustainability. It has been highlighted that agriculture that permits the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and unsystematic agricultural practices, are factors that contribute to the degradation of environmental quality in highland areas [16]. Kunasekaran et al (2011) reports that agrotourism itself when not done is the correct manner can lead to air pollution; land development for tourism purposes will cause more pollution; mass development will increase temperature, negatively affecting agriculture, and agricultural pesticides and fertilizers will lead to environmental pollution. These multiple factors need to be taken into consideration as they too will affect the popularity of Cameron Highlands as a tourist destination. This has been shown by Hiong (2007) who reported that green scenery, peacefulness and unique biodiversity are among the expectations of visitors to Cameron Highlands. Hiong also expressed his concern about development activities, which would affect not only the area’s natural beauty but also tourist satisfaction level.


3. Methodology

The paper’s main objective is to gather the perception of various stakeholders, pertaining to the environment, tourism activities, and acceptance and views of agro ecotourism. This paper is part of a larger research effort. In achieving its objectives, this study was carried out using a quantitative approach through questionnaire surveys. This survey is a pilot test carried out to examine the sustainability of highland communities, heritage and livelihoods through agro-ecotourism development in Cameron Highlands. The pilot test sample involved 41 respondents chosen randomly from the Tanah Rata area. The respondents include various Cameron Highlands stakeholders including five (5) people from the local authorities, and eighteen (18) people from the local community, including Orang Asli, business owners and Regional Environmental Awareness Cameron Highlands (REACH) representatives for non-governmental organizations (NGOs). In addition, eight (8) local tourists and ten (10) international tourists were also surveyed. The selected area for this pilot study was the Tanah Rata district, an area of rapid development after the Brinchang and Ringlet districts.

The questionnaire for the pilot test is divided into three (3) main sets, targeting the local authority, local community and NGOs, and tourists. The questionnaire has two sections; Section A focuses on demographic profiles while section B inquires about perceptions and impacts of agro-tourism. Some questions in section B differ between the three sets. For example, the questionnaires for the local authorities concentrates on environmental impacts, the questionnaire for local communities concentrates on business perspectives, and the questionnaire for tourists concentrates on their experience with agro-ecotourism. A large portion of the questions were prepared in Likert Scale, consisting of 5 parameters (1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-no comment, 4-agree, 5-strongly agree), with the total number of questions per set ranging from 20 to 25 questions. The study used the face-to-face questionnaire survey method. The survey was audio recorded and photographs were taken as a record and for documentation purposes.


4. Discussion

The following sections will discuss the preliminary findings of the research:

4.1 Local Authorities

Five of the 41 respondents were staff from the local authorities. All respondents were Malaysian males in the civil service who had been in the civil service for more than five years and were also living permanently in Cameron Highlands. A majority of these respondents (80%) were Malays and the remaining respondents were Indian. There are no Chinese participants in the government sector because most Chinese in Cameron Highlands are self-employed in private business. In this study, it was deemed important to determine education levels of the respondents so as to analyse the accuracy of their responses. However, this study showed that those who worked or lived in Cameron Highlands for a longer period of time were better able to answer the questions due to their longitudinal experience in the area rather than their education level. The analysis of the demographic profile was shown to have an impact on the perception of impacts of agro-tourism in Cameron Highlands. A majority of the respondents (90%) were largely positive about the statement on the impact of agroecotourism. For example, most respondents agreed that the increase in land-use and development has negative impacts such as soil erosion and floods. It is thus important for local authorities to protect the environment by promoting environmental awareness to local communities and to take a bit of time to listen to public views. However, it was found that 80% of the respondents suggested that the local authority should provide incentive for agro-eco tourism in the study area. Furthermore, only 44% of the total respondents were satisfied with the agro tourism facilities provided by the local authority. Local authorities therefore need to promote agro-ecotourism, and provide more incentives and facilities to the local communities so that they can benefit from agro-ecotourism activities in Cameron Highlands.

4.2 Local Communities & NGOs

Based on the analysis of the demographic profile of the local communities and NGO participants surveyed, the target of 18 questionnaires to be answered by this group of respondents was successfully achieved. Not dissimilar to the ethnicity mix that lives in Cameron Highlands, the majority of those who participated in this study were Malay, followed by Indians, and Orang Asli. The others participating in the survey included Sikh, and Chinese: both the Chinese respondents were Cantonese. In this group there were more male respondents than females. Most of the respondents work and live in Cameron Highlands, where most of them are private employees, in the farming and retail businesses. Even though a majority of the respondents do not have tertiary qualifications, the reliability of their answers can be accepted as they have lived and worked in Cameron Highlands for more than 10 years.

The pilot test showed that many understood that agrotourism is based on the agricultural sector. A majority of respondents (61.1%) perceived that agriculture is the main attraction in Cameron Highlands, and an even higher percentage (83.3%) perceived that tourism has positive impacts on the economic sustainability of Cameron Highlands. The local community also understood that tourism as it has been carried out thus far put pressure on the environmental sustainability and natural resources of Cameron Highlands, with a majority ‘agreeing’ to the statement given.

The results also showed that the locals agreed that uncontrolled tourism development had increased the temperature and changed the climate in Cameron Highlands. A majority of the respondents also agreed that switching to agro-ecotourism would increase the sustainability of economic, environmental and social aspects of their businesses. The local community also agreed that there should be strict regulation in land use. Although many believed that the local authorities did not necessarily consider public views, they did feel that the local authority and NGOs are committed to environmental issues.

4.3 Local & International Tourists

The demographic survey results show that the 18 respondents that participated in the questionnaire were both local and international tourists. Apart from Malaysian tourists, the others were from Germany, Japan, Australia, and Canada. Most of the international tourists originated from temperature countries, thus proving that Cameron Highlands is still favoured for its pleasant and cool weather. A majority of respondents had tertiary education and professional jobs in their own country, and were willing to spend on their visit. About 64% of the respondents were satisfied with the Cameron Highlands environment, while the remaining respondents had ‘no comment’ or were ‘dissatisfied’ with the environment.

While a majority (80%) agreed that preserving the natural environment and practising safer agricultural methods were necessary, they (83%) believed that the existing tourism development trends had increased local temperatures and negatively affected the agricultural business. They were supportive of the idea of agro-ecotourism not only to increase the quality of life of local residents (61%), but also as aids to educate and preserve the quality of the environment (67%). Nevertheless, a few responded with ‘no comment’, perhaps indicating they were not clear about the meaning of agroecotourism.

The results also show that the tourists believed that mass tourism and uncontrolled visitor numbers had a negative impact on nature and the indigenous people. A majority (67%) of the respondents felt that Cameron Highlands is suitable as a family tourist destination, and agreed that agro-ecotourism contributed to the survival of the Cameron Highlands community as agro-ecotourism enthusiasts would purchase local products and crafts.

5 Initial Results

The analysis of the pilot test showed that the local authorities, local community and NGOs, as well as tourists generally agreed that agro-ecotourism can bring economic sustainability to Cameron Highlands and the country. However, rapid uncontrolled development and land use is perceived to have negative impacts on environmental sustainability, especially on the terrain and local climate as evidenced by increasing temperatures. The pilot test provided a brief insight into the need for Cameron Highlands to prosper with appropriate planning; in this case in agricultural and tourism decision-making. Thus, it is important for all stakeholders to frequently discuss pertinent issues and play a role in ensuring sustainability in highland development. For example, the local authorities should take more serious steps to preserve the environment, and be open to public views, as well as work on sustainable solutions especially in the agricultural sector. Local communities should come together to not only drive the economy of Cameron Highlands, but to take part in environmental community projects so as to meet social community needs and care for the environment. Tourist awareness of carrying capacity and limits of change, as well as sensitivity to the needs and privacy of the local community especially the indigenous people should be increased and emphasized.


6. Conclusion
The findings in this study show that the local authorities, local communities and NGOs support the idea that agro-ecotourism can boost the economic value of Cameron Highlands and the country. However, this is a huge challenge with illegal and uncontrolled land clearing which has resulted in various environmental problems and issues such as soil erosion and floods, and most importantly a change in the micro-climate. This will lead to a negative impact on the entire ecosystem and ecotourism businesses in Cameron Highlands, which are highly dependent on nature and cool climates. Past environmental awareness campaigns for the local community did little to change the situation. In conclusion, protecting the environment is not the sole responsibility of the local authorities, but local communities and NGOs should play a role in caring for the natural environment. Overall, this pilot study achieved its main target, even though there were several problems in the questionnaires that need to be fine-tuned and improved for the actual full-scale survey.


7. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the University Malaya Research Grant Programme titled Historical Hill-Station Settlement as a Sustainable development area: the Case of Cameron Highland (UMRGRP009C-13SUS: Sustainable Highland Community, Heritage and Livelihood Through Eco- Ago-tourism development in Cameron Highland) under the Sustainability Science Research Cluster which supported field and desk research that helped produce this paper.


References

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Case of Cappadocia, European Journal of Social Sciences (2012)

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a case study of Kinabalu National Park. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes. 5, 342 –
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Public perception towards environmental awareness Case study: Malacca River

Abstract

Water is an important resource for all living and non-living beings. However, there is a shortage of fresh water nowadays. This situation is related to various factors. One of these factors is water pollution. Water pollution occurs in Malacca state. Specifically, it affects the Malacca River. The main cause of water pollution is factories. If factories continue their activities, the environment will be harmed. Action is needed to stop this pollution before it destroys the environment. This research will explore the level of awareness of citizens in regards to water pollution. This research is divided into three parts. Part A analyzes the respondents’ biodata. Part B investigates citizens’ perceptions of river ecology. Part C describes citizens’ perceptions of water pollution in the river. This study is a starting point meant to discover how great of a threat citizens view water pollution. Malaccan citizens have the right to voice their opinions regarding the water pollution. Their knowledge of the ecosystem showed that they still love the environment. They are embedded with moral and ethical values that dispose them towards caring about the environment. They know that they still have a responsibility to the environment. The people realized they can protect the environment from destruction. Malaccan citizens hope that by taking early steps, they can stop the polluting manufacturing activities.

Keywords: water pollution, factories, environment, awareness, destruction.

Citation to Article:
Hua, A. K., & Marsuki, M. Z. (2014). Public perception towards environmental awareness. Case study: Malacca River. International Journal of Academic Research in Environment and Geography, 1(2), 53-61.

Introduction

Natural freshwater resources have diminished more and more (Jackson et al, 2001). This situation has led to world concern about water resources. Since lack of water is a limit to growth, many debates have been underway to generate ideas to sustain freshwater levels. Malaysia is one of the countries that are currently facing water issues. Although this problem is not immediately threatening, it may cause danger to human society in the long run. Malacca is one example of an area under threat of water shortage. Malacca is a state known as “The Historical State”. Various developments were carried out by its state government. These developments included basic facilities that have helped local citizens in all aspects, such as the construction of factories which have provided employment opportunities for the people. Most factories are built near the river in order to get access to a steady water source. Water is used to aid in the process of producing a new product. Eventually the end of the manufacturing process also produces waste fluid chemical which is poisonous. These waste chemicals cannot be recycled for any other purpose. Such chemicals should not be disposed of by dumping them into the river or planted to solve problems (Hizar, 2009). These actions have caused the environment to be contaminated; this contamination has spread to water, vegetation, soil, and the atmosphere. Destruction occurs when the environment starts to get harmed by human activities. An act stated by Allah s.w.t., says (Ismail, 2012);

“Visible damage on land and sea because of what the hands of men, because God let them taste a part of (the consequences) of them, so they come back.” - Surah al-Rum, verse 41

According to Dr Hafizan Juahir, Head Department of Environmental Modeling, Research Centre For Environmental Forensics (ENFORCE) University Putra Malaysia, the water in our rivers is decreasing as a result of the land use activities that are too high, especially in residential areas. For example, he revealed that the length of Langat River, the main river between the rivers in Selangor and a source of raw water, is 149.3km. However, clean water only makes up 49.3 miles, while the remaining 100km is already polluted (Sinar Harian, 2012). He added that the Langat River is already at grade 3 or 4; if the water quality becomes worse than this, it will be considered a dead river. Before natural resources are destroyed, early steps are needed to prevent such harmful activities from happening. The purpose of this research is to explore the awareness of citizens of the negative changes in the environment. The case study for this research mainly concentrates on water pollution in the Malacca River.

Water is the main resource needed by citizens to carry out daily activities (Acreman, 1998). Water was a source for drinking, bathing, and cooking in the past. Water also became an important method of transportation and communication between peoples. The judgments showed that citizens are highly dependent on water to continue with their lives. However, with the passing of time rapid development became the priority in the state of Malacca. This rapid development caused people to forget their responsibilities toward the environment. Again, referring to Dr Hafizan Juahir, river conditions in the Hulu Langat district are now increasingly threatening as a result of too much development, especially condominiums, houses, and increasing population having a negative impact on the quality of water as a result of washing water, domestic waste, and rubbish in the river. So, the issue started to evolve when water in the river started to get polluted. The problem was felt when a group of fisherman could not manage to catch fish in the river (Nasbah, 2010). The main reason for this was that the fish was being poisoned to death (Johnson and Griffith, 1996). This situation gives an impression that rapid development leads to the destruction of important natural resources such as fresh water. As a result of water pollution, Malaccan citizens only depend on tap water to obtain water prepared by the state government and never have water resources taken from the river.


Materials and Methods

This research study is focused on public perception. The respondents involved are Malaccan citizens who were surveyed on the existing water pollution conditions in Malacca. This study involved about 200 respondents spread over the two regions that the Malaccan River spans. The two regions mentioned are the Alor Gajah and Central Malacca. The study area for two regions was a little bit different. Alor Gajah is an area for the upstream of Malacca River, while Central Malacca is an area for the downstream of Malacca River. These two areas have a different population because Alor Gajah is a relatively rural area, while Central Malacca is an urban area. Therefore, most of the population will be concentrated at the Central Malacca for job opportunities. However, the total population of Malacca state consists of the total for three regions. As a result, the sample size needed to be re-calculated to obtain the correct sample. According to Krejcieand and Morgan, the population size studied can be calculated using a formula. The formula is stated as below:

This calculation gave an answer that 200 respondents was a suitable sample size. From the viewpoint of Muhamad Najid, it is suitable to have 200 respondents involved in a study. However, he added that a larger sample size is better, if possible, due to the increased accuracy of the results obtained from a larger sample size. So, the questionnaire will be separately distributed to two regions, which are 100 questionnaires at Alor Gajah and 100 questionnaires at Central Malacca.

The desired information was collected with questionnaires. The questionnaire was divided into several parts. Part A provided the information about respondent biodata. Part B asked about citizen perception of river ecology. Part C asked about citizen perception of water pollution in the river. The format for the questionnaire is in index form. The index included options of strongly disagree, disagree, normal, agree, and strongly agree. Each level corresponds to a certain value of percentage. Strongly disagree stands for 0% to 20%; disagree stands for 21% to 40%; normal stands for 41% to 60%; agree stands for 61% to 80%; and strongly agree stands for 81% to 100%.

Once the questionnaire was prepared, the survey distributed via questionnaires along the Malacca River. Citizens who live near the river provided accurate information when answering the questionnaires. After the questionnaires were completed, the data was keyed-in into the computer. The survey was stored in the computer as a softcopy. Computers helped to analyze the data. The computer also provided new information for making a decision in the research.


Results and Discussions

The information from part A shows the respondents’ biodata. The number of male and female respondents was about even. The ages of the participations ranged from adolescent to adult. Most of the respondents were married. For this reason, the majority of respondents had lived in Malacca state for more than 20 years. Most of the Malaccan citizens surveyed were Muslims, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity were the next most common religious affiliations. The education level item showed that the majority of respondents have a secondary level education. Most of the respondents have job in the private sector or are self-employed.

The results from part A are an important factor in influencing other parts of the questionnaire. The answers provided by the respondents will have connections with other parts. From a general point of view, the majority of respondents that were surveyed are educated. This gave them the opportunity to work in the private sector, for instance as factory workers. This situation results in the number of men being greater than the number of women in the factories, since the workers will stay there for a period of time. It is an opportunity for people to meet with other couples in Malacca state. The results showed that the majority of respondents are married and adult. Since they are already married, they will have already bought a house and lived in the area for a longer time. The experience and maturity of the respondents helped in the research study. This is because the information that the respondents provided was more true and accurate.

In part B, the information collected was more concerned with citizen perceptions of river ecology. The table shows that respondents had given their answers based on their experience and opinions. In their view, they are strongly agreed that water is the habitat of aquatic life. They know that polluted water in the river will affect the ecosystem. Respondents strongly agreed that evaporation of polluted water from the river is a cause of air pollution and bad odors. They also agreed that surface water runoff from acid rain will cause river water contamination. Moreover, the acidic surface water will cause contaminated groundwater. The respondents also agreed that water pollution can weaken the soil structure.

Part C provided respondent information that is connected with part B. Part C provided results about citizen perception of water pollution in the river. The table below shows that citizens rejected the statement that the Malacca River is clean. The water in the river cannot be of daily use to the citizen. Respondents strongly agree that industrial waste will cause the water to turn black in color, to become smelly, and to be contaminated. Respondents also strongly agree that polluted water causes disease and becomes a dirty habitat to animals. They realize that contaminated water can cause aquatic species to become extinct. Finally, they agree that water pollution can affect plant species.

Since respondents have lived in Malacca state for a long period of time, they have undergone many difficulties. Respondents realize that water is important for all living and non-living beings. They are aware that humans need water to continue living their lives. Allah s.w.t. says which means (Ismail, 2012):

“He who made the earth unfold, the sky as a canopy for you, and He sends down rain from the sky, and producing fruits as food for you.” - Surah al-Baqarah, ayat22

In other words, it’s important for human to thankful for water resources. Management or sustainability of water resources is very important to done wisely to avoid facing the problems associated with water. Even the aquatic animals need water as their habitat. The aquatic animals live in the water to find food and protection. It is a certainty that the animals need water (Smakhtin, 2003). In addition, animals such as fish also provide food for humans. Humans are one of the predators in the food chain. An interaction exists between humans, fish, algae, and water to create a natural ecosystem. This situation has created a complete balance in this world. However, development through land use, chemical construction, and natural demand can cause environmental destruction.

One example of such destruction in Malacca state is when factory construction causes water pollution (Petts, 1988) in the Malacca River. The main cause of water pollution is the chemical factories. The chemical factories produce waste chemicals when they generate a new product. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are an example of the early products of the chlorine industry, which were to prove highly damaging to the environment (Jacobson & Jacobson, 1996). According to the report, PCBs are non-flammable oily liquids or waxes which found use as hydraulic fluids, as additives to oils, in sealants, in electrical applications, and in paints. PCBs has proven difficult to untangle all of the toxic impacts, but many are suspected of promoting cancers, damaging the immune and reproductive systems, and interfering with hormone systems through endocrine disruption (Jacobson & Jacobson, 1996). PCBs are dangerous. Additional, the waste chemicals are dumped down the drain and let flow into the river (Figure 1). This continued action causes water pollution and eventually causes poisoning. Eventually the chemical waste turned the Malacca River black (Figure 2). It also produced a type of bad smell detectable as one gets close to the river. The water in the river became black, smelly, poisonous, and contaminated. For another example, consider the situation of Sungai Juru and Sungai Simpat Ampat, Penang. The river water found to be contaminated as a result of waste from residential area, manufacturing sector, agriculture and livestock flowing into the river. Therefore, the river water became black and foul-smelling (Berita Harian, 2014).

When water pollution exists in a river, it has a high probability of killing the animals that use it as their habitat (Haslour, 1983). Eventually, this pollution will kill almost every animal living in the water. Agriculture activities have led to large increases in the levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in the environment (WWF) [15]. When in water, this overabundance of nutrients, in a process called eutrophication, can fuel the excessive growth of phytoplankton and algae, which can have devastating consequences. Harmful algal blooms can kill fish, marine mammals and seabirds and harm humans. If this situation continues, the contaminated water can cause aquatic species to become extinct. This because when the algae and other organisms that had been allowed to bloom because of the nutrient excess eventually die off, bacteria may suck up all the oxygen from the water as the algae decompose. This create a “dead zone” where fish cannot live (WWF) [15]. Moreover, the dead fish and polluted water can easily spread disease to human society. However, this may give dirty animals an advantage by providing them a chance to live in the river. Polluted water in the river will affect the natural ecosystem and destroy the food chain. This is the main reason that respondents give for strongly agreeing that water pollution may affect the ecosystem. In their opinion, if fish cannot live in the river, it is not possible for humans to use the water of the river either.

Malaccan citizens had experienced the way of life in Malacca state. They had explored and understood how to overcome bad situations when living close to the river. During the hot season, they need to face the bad smell produced by the river (Cees, 1974). The hot weather had evaporated the water in the river into gas. The gas was released into the air surrounding the river. This caused the Malaccan citizen to move to and stay in areas far from the river. However, this does not resolve the problem. When the gas is released into the air, this may cause the air to get polluted. According to the World Wild Life organization (WWF) [15], when water in the atmosphere mixes with certain chemicals (particularly sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emitted during the burning of fossil fuels), mild acidic are formed. So, this air pollution may mix up with moisture and cause even more pollution. When it rains, acidic water pours from the clouds and the rain is acid rain. Acid rain also weakens tress in forests and contributes to air pollution that can harm humans (WWF) [15].

Acid rain drops onto the land and creates a water surface. The water on the land is acidic water. This surface water will flow from a higher area to a lower area. The surface water runoff will mix with existing water and cause contamination. This will increase the percentage of water pollution when the mixture flows into the river. This acid rain can leach toxic aluminum from the soil, which at low levels can stress fish in lakes and streams or, at higher concentrations, kill them outright (WWF) [15]. In addition, surface water runoff may absorb into ground to become groundwater. When acidic surface water is absorbed into the ground, it may also cause contamination. This situation can pose dangers to society because groundwater is a resource for people. Therefore, acid rain will aid in the pollution of the clean water.

The surface water runoff is easy to contaminate the clean water with and the acidic water can also affect the soil structure. Soil needs adequate sources of nutrients for plants to undergo the growth process. Pesticides and other chemicals used on crop plants have helped farmers increase their yields. However, scientists have found that overuse of some of these chemicals changes soil composition and disrupt the balance of microorganisms in the soil (WWF) [16]. This stimulates the growth of harmful bacteria at the expense of beneficial types. Plus, the presence of acidic water will cause substantial changes to the structure of the soil due the ability of acidic water to destroy soil structure by changing the natural chemical composition of the soil. Broadly speaking, soil is the basis of wealth upon which all land-based life depends (Carter, 2003). Indirect damage to ecosystem is largely caused by changes in the soil chemistry. Increasing soil acidity through acid rain can affect microorganism which break down organic matter into nutrient form for plant to take up (Carter, 2003). When acid rain falls, it can affect forests because acid rain is absorbed into the soil making it virtually impossible for these trees to survive. As a result, trees are more susceptible to viruses, fungi, and insect pests. At the moment, acid rain moves through the soils, it can strip away vital plant nutrients through chemical reactions, thus posing a potential threat to future forest productivity. Moreover, the number of micro-organisms present in the soil also decreases as the soil acidifies, and this situation depletes nutrients available to plant life, as micro-organisms play an important role in releasing nutrients from decaying organic material (Carter, 2003). When this situation happens, plants find it difficult to carry out processes of growth and eventually die. If both the soil and the groundwater are acidic, plant species will be destroyed. The majority of the respondents are in agreement that water pollution can affect soil nutrients and can cause destruction to plant species.

Acidic water can cause natural disasters such as flash floods to occur. This is because of the changes in soil structure that are caused by acidic water. The main result of this situation that when plants has difficulty surviving, this will affect the soil structure because the root are unable to hold the soil and cause erosion. By the way, death plant can increase the probability of water surface runoff. For example, when the trees are unable to hold the soil and the raining fall is greater, this will increase the erosion potential because the impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material (Ritter, 2012). The lighter aggregate material such as very fine sand, silt, clay, and organic matter are easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; while greater raindrop energy or runoff amounts are required to move larger sand and gravel particles (Ritter, 2012). The water surface runoff will then flow into the river. Water surface runoff has the ability to transport the soil and together with the other material along the way into the stream. While traveling in the river, high water energy has a strong impact and erodes the river banks. This increases the chance of erosion. Other than acid rain, this will also increase the percentage of pollution in the river due to the erosion and other material transport. When energy transport has reached a maximum level, then transported material will be deposited in an area. This usually happens in the river downstream. The soil deposits in the river will decrease the depth of the river. This situation will increase the probability of flash floods due to sedimentation. Destruction of property is another consequence.


Conclusion

With the results and explanations provided above, respondents had displayed their knowledge of the polluted state of the Malacca River. Respondents strongly disagree that the Malacca River is clean until it can be used. Water pollution in the Malacca River has caused a lot of destruction to the environment. The cause of this destruction stemmed from human activities since humans are the key for all protection and can play the roles of savior or destroyer. Humans are an intelligent species. Humans know how to create technology to fulfill their demands. They design technology to produce food in large quantities and in a short amount of time. They use the natural resources available to them. They cut down trees to make paper. They clear the forest to build buildings. They create a car to facilitate movement. They use water for processing chemicals. Every action performed by humans is to facilitate their own lives. Because of this, they have forgotten their responsibilities towards the environment, as in the case of the Malacca River.

Sometimes, the rapid development not only brings benefits, but also has a harmful impact on humans. For example, humans create the manufacturing industry that can lead negative impact on the environment, such as contaminated water. When this happens, contaminated water will easily spread infectious diseases, which will affect the quality of human life. In the context of Islam, Allah s.w.t. says;

“…and diligently (to get) what Allah has given to you from (the award) at the Last Day and do not forget to reward you in the world, and do good as Allah has been good to you and do not do damage, surely Allah does not love to those who do the damage.” - Surah al-Qasas: 77

This verse clearly shows that Allah s.w.t. remind people to be kind to all creatures, including the environment, as Allah s.w.t. has done good for them. This means that in the developments of human beings, they must preserve the environment in the form of flora and, as Allah s.w.t is good to humans. If Allah s.w.t. created the environment in a beauty and balanced, then people are also obliged to keep the beauty and balance of nature as originally created by Allah s.w.t.. So, humans need to aware that they have a big responsibility in protecting the environment from destruction. This is because Islam teaches humans to be grateful. It is important for humans to remember that they are created from natural elements, such as water and earth. Therefore, they should appreciate all these elements by themselves in terms of preserving and conserving the environment (Abidfana, 2009). Allah s.w.t. says;

“And to Thamud, We sent their brother Salih. He said: “O my people! Worship Allah!
Actually there is no God but from it. He brought you forth from the earth and settled you therein. So ask forgiveness of Him, then turn to the faithful and faith. Verily, my God is near, ready to answer.” - Surah Hud, Verse 61

This research study is to show that water is essential for all creatures. Water is among one of the natural resources created by Allah s.w.t. to be used wisely. Human are too selfish and too greedy for fulfillment of desires without any regard for the environment, and this situation has caused destruction to occur. The destruction is refers to the absence of clean water for drinking or bathing because of contaminated water. This situation has not yet occurred because humans still feel that they have adequate water resources. However, clean water resources will not last long if the water pollution activities is continuous and there is no other alternative for the restoration of water resources. So, not only will human life be affected, the original ecosystem will also be threatened as a result of contamination. People may have forgotten that they are in need of enough clean water to sustain life, and that they themselves are actually composed of liquid (known as blood) to form proteins and other parts of organs. Therefore, early awareness is very important in helping to protect water resources from further destruction.

However, the situation is quite different in Malacca. Malacca is famous due to its history that existed in the state from the founding of the Sultanate, becoming the starting point of the center of government, a world trade center, experiencing colonialism by foreign powers, and so on. This has caused Malacca to be recognized by UNESCO World Heritage Site at 7 July, 2008 (UNESCO Official Portal). Therefore, Malacca has become an attraction to the tourist especially from worldwide to come and visit the state. So, the tourism activities become important to the country because it can generate economic revenue. However, many changes have taken place until the present day. This is because the state government feels that tourism alone is not enough to support Malacca. In desperate need for development, this has led to extremely exploitative land use. At the same time, without realizing it, the environment becomes affected, which also causes water sources to be harmed as a result of rapid development. Due to increased development and job creation, there is no reason to destroy the environment. The Malacca River is in serious condition. If no action is taken to stop human activities, the environment will be destroyed one day. Malaccan citizens are very hopeful that government can stop the harmful activities before it is too late.

Water is not an irreplaceable resource. Humans have tried to create machines that can recycle water and succeeded. However, the water pollution problem is still not resolved since successfully recycled water cannot be produced to match the original water quality. The recycled water was not drinkable. If society continues to promote water pollution, then this problem cannot be resolved. Take the Malacca River in Malacca state as an example. If government promoted environmental awareness while factories continued to pollute, then the solution will not be reached. Malaccan citizens are aware of the environmental problems. They hope that factories can find another solution by not dumping their chemical waste into the river. Lastly, Malaccan citizens want the water quality in the river to be maintained for the next generation.


Acknowledgement

The author is very thankful to Dr. Mohd Zuhdi bin Marsuki, lecturer in Environmental Ethics, Faculty of Science and Technology Studies, University of Malaysia, for motivating and guiding me to finish writing this journal.


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